Chapter XV. Forms of Speech

§337. Direct and Indirect Speech. Strictly speaking Coptic has no conception of Direct Speech as shown in Latin or English, but rather treats both Direct and Indirect Speech in the same way. Indeed it is often quite impossible to distinguish whether a statement or a question following a verb of saying, answering or ordering, is Direct or Indirect Speech. The conjunction  `e  is used to introduce both Direct and Indirect Speech: in the case of Direct Speech, `e  is not translated but rather is equivalent to inverted commas or quotation marks; with Indirect Speech, `e  may be rendered as ‘that’ in statements and ‘whether’ in questions; e.g. pe`a.3  na.u  `e  n.kotk.2e  n.tetn.mton  mmw.tn ‘He said to them: Sleep therefore and rest yourselves’ (Mt 26:45), a.3.ouw4b  na.u  `e  a.i.ouw  e.i.`w  mmo.s  nh.tn  auw  mpe.tn.swtm ‘He answered them: I have already told you (lit. I have ceased saying it to you) and you did not hear’ (Jn 9:27). Sometimes the verb of saying is omitted before `e; e.g. ntere.3.swtm  `e  t.galilaia ‘When he heard (them say): Galilee’ (Lk 23:6). `e  introducing indirect speech is mostly found after verbs of sentient perception or declaration; e.g. ne.s.soun  de  an  `e  is  pe ‘Yet she was not understanding that it was Jesus’ (Jn 20:14), e.tm.e.p.laau  n.rwme  `e  3.`a6m ‘Not to count any man that he is unclean’ (Acts 10:28), a.3.4ine  `e  ene.ou.galilaios  pe  prwme ‘He asked whether the man was a Galilean’ (Lk 23:6). Note: Occasionally `e-  is found written `-; e.g. `.mpr.tre.[pei].nobe  ei  ebol  n.toot.n ‘Do not let (this) sin come forth from us’ (Z 261.7).
§338. Coordination of Sentences. On the whole, Coptic preferred a series of short sentences rather than long involved sentences such as are common in Greek. Frequently a succession of short sentences appear without any connecting particles; e.g. ntere.3.tw6m  de  e.p.ro  a.s.r.ouw  a.s.ouwn  na.3  a.3.4ine  n.sa  pes.eiwt ‘When he had knocked at the door, she replied; she opened (it) to him; he enquired after her father’ (Z 295.a.1). This type of  asyndeton  is also commonplace in the Semitic languages, although not characteristic of Greek. Continuity of verbal action in following sentences can be effected by means of the Conjunctive (§226). Not infrequently, the Conjunctive follows the Causative Infinitive; e.g. 6aps  etre.3.bwk  e.6rai  e.q.ierosoluma  n.3.4p.6a6  n.6ise  ebol  6itn  ne.presbuteros  mn  n.arxiereus  mn  ne.grammateus  n.se.mouout  mmo.3  n.3.twoun  6m.p.me6.4omnt  n-.6oou ‘It is necessary for him to go up to Jerusalem; he will suffer much at the hands of the elders and the chief priests and the scribes; they will kill him; he will rise on the third day’ (Mt 16:21). For coordination by means of auw, cf §290.
§338a. Coptic freely incorporated many Greek Conjunctions (§288) in the language, especially in translations from Greek originals. Thus ALLA, DE, MEN, GE, GAR, OUDE, KAI, KAN, ETEI etc. appear in Coptic MSS.
§339. Commands and Prohibitions. These are expressed by means of the Imperative (§238-41) and its Negation (§242). When the person or persons addressed are in the 3<sup>rd</sup> person, and also when some stress is implied in the command or prohibition, the III Future (§217) and its negation (§218) are used.
§340. Wishes. Wishes are expressed by means of the Optative (§220); negative wishes by means of the Negation of the Optative (§221). When, however, the wish is more strongly expressed, the III Future (§217) or its Negation (§218) is used.
§341. Questions. Questions are expressed in three ways:
(1) In the form of a statement, the interrogative nature of the sentence being indicated by the tone of voice or the context.
(2) By means of an Interrogative Pronoun or Adverb.
(3) By means of an Interrogative Particle (§346).
§342. (1) Questions in the form of an ordinary statement, the interrogative sense being indicated in speech by the tone of voice, and in writing by the context; e.g. ntok  pe  p.sa6  m.p.ihl  auw  n.t.sooun  an  n.nai ‘Art thou the teacher of Israel, and dost thou not know these things?’ (Jn 3:10), k.na.ka tek.yuxh  6aro.i ‘Wilt thou lay down thy life for me?’ (Jn 13:38), a.u.`w  mmo.s  `e  tai  te  noemein ‘They said: Is this Naomi?’ (Ruth 1:19; cf §191)
§343. (2) Questions containing an Interrogative Pronoun or Adverb. These sentences can be divided into two groups: (a) Questions in which the Interrogative Pronoun stands at the beginning of the sentence. (b) Questions in which the Interrogative Pronoun and Adverb stand after the verb:
§344. (a) The following interrogatives stand at the beginning of the sentence:  a4, nim, a6ro=, etbe.ou, ouhr; ou ‘What?’ can stand at the beginning of the sentence, but is more frequently found after the verb. The First Tenses of the Auxiliaries are usually employed after these interrogatives, as they already stand in the place of greatest stress.
(i)  a4 ‘who?, what?, which?’  can be used as a substantive, especially in Non-Verbal Sentences; e.g. a4  te  q.e ‘Which is the way?’ (Z 298.b.1), a4  gar  pet.motn  e.`oo.s  pe ‘For which is easier to say?’ (Mk 2:9). When a4  is used adjectivally it is linked to its noun by n; e.g. a4  n.ran ‘Which name?’, n.a4  n.6e  k.na.`oo.s  m.pek.son ‘How (lit. In what way) wilt thou say to thy brother?’ (Lk 6:42), ou.a4  m.mine.2e  nto3  pe  pai ‘(A) what kind (of man) therefore is this (one)?’ (Mk 4:41). Note: Occasionally a4  has the meaning of  ‘a certain’ ; e.g. 6n.a4  n.5me ‘In a certain town’.
(ii)  nim ‘who?, what?, which?’  is used in the same way as a4, with which it is often interchangeable. It is more commonly used with persons; e.g. nim  ntooun  net.na.wn6 ‘Who then (are) those who will live?’ (Lk 18:26), nim  n.rwme  ebol  n.6ht.thutn ‘Which man of you?’ (Lk 15:4). Note: In Non-Verbal Sentences containing an Independent Pronoun, nim  follows the pronoun; e.g. nte nim  nto ‘Who art thou?’ (Ruth 3:9).
(iii)  a6ro= ‘why?’ , must always take a suffix pronoun referring to the subject of the question (it represents Greek ti or ina ti); e.g. a6ro.k  k.4a`e  nmma.s ‘Why art thou speaking with her?’ (Jn 4:27), a6rw.tn  tetn.moute  ero.i  `e  p.`oeis ‘Why do you call me Lord?’ (Lk 6:46).
(iv)  etbe-ou ‘why?’  (lit. Concerning what?) as a substantive; e.g. etbe.ou  a.u.take  pai ‘Why did they destroy this?’ (Mt 26:8), etbe.ou  mpe.tn.nt.3 ‘Why have you not brought him?’ (Jn 7:45). Note: etbe.ou  n.6wb  (lit. concerning what thing?) usually follows the verb, which shows a Second Tense; e.g. e.tet.na.ei  nmma.i  etbe.ou  n.6wb ‘For what purpose will you come with me?’ (Ruth 1:11), a.s.tamo.3  `e  nta.s.`w6  ero.3  etbe.ou  n.6wb ‘She showed him for what purpose she touched him’ (Lk 8:47).
(v)  ouhr ‘how much/many?’  is used adjectivally and is linked to its noun by n; e.g. oun  ouhr n.oeik  nte.teutn ‘How many loaves have you?’ (Mt 15:34), eis  ouhr  m.rompe  5.askei ‘Lo, how many years do I practice self discipline?’ (Z 317.23).
(vi)  aouhr ‘about how much/many?’ ; e.g. eis  aouhr  n.6oou  n.`int a.u.3it.ou ‘Lo, about how many days since they carried them off?’ (Mor. 587.f.100v).
(vii)  ou ‘what?’  is mostly used as a substantive (§345b.i), and less frequently stands at the beginning of the sentence; e.g. ou  pe  p.maein ‘What is the sign?’ (Lk 21:7).
§345. (b) The following interrogatives stand after the verb, which shows a Second Tense (§186b.2):
(i)  ou ‘what?’  (see §344a.vii); e.g. ere.p.`oeis 2e ... na.r.ou  na.u ‘What therefore will the Lord ... do to them?’ (Lk 20:15), e.tetn.r.ou  n.nei.bir ‘What are you doing with these baskets?’ (Z 300.d.3).
(ii)  twn  ‘Where?, whence?’ ; e.g. e.u.na.`po  m.pe.xs  twn ‘Where will Christ be born?’ (lit. Where will they bring forth the Christ?) (Mt 2:4), e.n.na.4p.oeik  twn ‘Where shall we buy bread?’ (Jn 6:5), nta.3.6e  2e  e.n.th2  twn ‘Whence found it tares?’ (Mt 13:27).  When the Subject is Nominal, twn  is prefaced by the pronominal form of the Second Tense of the Present Auxiliary (§37), and the nominal subject follows without an introductory particle; e.g. e.3.twn  p.rro  n.n.ioudai ‘Where is the King of the Jews?’ (Mt 2:2).
(iii)  e.twn ‘whither?’ ; e.g. ere.pai  na.bwk  e.twn ‘Whither will this man go?’ (Jn 7:35).
(iv)  ebol.twn ‘whence?’  is mostly found with the Indefinite Article prefixed to form a substantive; e.g. ou.ebol.twn  te  tei.sofia ‘Whence is this wisdom?’
(v)  tnau ‘when?’  and its compound  4a.tnau ‘until when?’ ; e.g. ere.nai  na.4wpe  tnau ‘When will these things happen?’ (Lk 21:7). Note: 4a.tnau  can stand at the beginning of the sentence, in which case the auxiliary shows a First Tense; e.g. 4a.tnau  k.3i  m.pen.6ht ‘Until when art thou holding us in suspense (lit. taking our heart)?’ (Jn 10:24), 4a.tnau  p.noute  p.`a`e  no2ne2 ‘Until when, O Lord, does the enemy mock?’ (Ps 74:10).
§346. (3) Questions introduced by an Interrogative Particle:
(i)  ene-  (occasionally  en-) stands at the beginning of the sentence, usually before the Subject, which often receives some stress in consequence; e.g. pe`a.3  m.p.xiliarxos  `e  ene.sto  na.i  etra.`e (§357) ou.4a`e  ero.k  nto3  de  pe`a.3  `e  ene.k.sooun  m.mnt.oueienin ‘He says to the Chiliarch: Is it permitted to me to speak a word with thee? He said: Dost thou understand Greek?’ (Acts 21:37), ene.tare.n.ouw6  e.toot.n  e.bwk  ebol  e.mi4e  mn.beniamin ‘Are we to set ourselves to go out to fight with Benjamin?’ (Jud 20:28). ene- may be used before a Non-Verbal Sentence to stress the Predicate; e.g. ene.ou.galilaios  pe  p.rwme ‘Is the man a Galilean?’ (Lk 23:6). Likewise the stress may fall upon an adverbial phrase of time standing at the beginning of the sentence; e.g. en  6rai  6m.pei.ouoei4  k.na.5  n.t.mnt.ero  m.p.ihl  ‘Is it at this time thou wilt give the kingdom to Israel?’ (Acts 1:6).
(ii)  eie- (eeie-)  introduces a question to which no definite answer is required. Its function is similar to the Greek ara, so that  ara  is frequently used instead. eie- is often found at the beginning of the apodosis of a Conditional Sentence, with the meaning of  ‘Surely, then of course’   (§376); e.g. eie  p.moou  nhu  on  6m.pe3.ouoei4 ‘Is the flood to come again in his time?’ (Z 347.16), eie  ntok  an  2e  p.rm.n.khme ‘Art thou not therefore the Egyptian?’ (Acts 21:38), ara  e.3.e.san4  n.ou.5me ‘Shall he nourish a village?’ (Z 340.5). Note: ara  sometimes appears at the beginning of a question with another interrogative; e.g. ara  a4  pe  p.6wb  n.nai ‘What is the work of these?’ (Z 344.17).
(iii)  mh , sometimes  mht(e)i , is used in questions to which a negative answer is expected; e.g. mh  oun.laau  n.tbt  nte.thutn ‘Have you any fish?’ (Jn 21:5), mhti  anok  pe ‘Is it I?’ (Mt 26:22). If the question already contains a negative, an affirmative answer is expected (cf Latin nonne); e.g. mh  n.s.na.`ere  p.6hbs  an ‘Will she not light the lamp?’ (Lk 15:8), mh  oun.4.2om  n.ou.blle  e.`i.moeit  6ht.3  n.ou.blle  mh  n.se.na.6e  an  e.u.6ieit  m.pe.snau ‘Is it possible for a blind man to lead a blind man?’ (expects the answer ‘No’) ‘Will they not both fall into a ditch?’ (expects the answer ‘Yes’) (Lk 6:39).
§347. Double Questions. (i)  `n- (`en-)  [in bad MSS `in-] is used to link two questions; e.g. ntok  pet.nhu  `n  e.n.na.2w4t  6ht.3  n.ke.oua ‘Art thou he who is about to come, or is it for another we shall look?’ (Lk 7:20), `e  p.`oeis  e.k.`w  na.n  n.tei.parabolh  `en  e.k.`w  mmo.s  e.ouon  nim ‘(Peter said to him:) Lord, art thou saying this parable to us, or art thou saying it to everyone?’ (Lk 12:41).
(ii)  `n.mmon ‘or not’ ; e.g. ecesti  e.5.khnsos  m.p.rro  `n.mmon (other MSS `n.ouk ecesti) ‘Is it lawful to give tribute to the king or not?’ (Mk 12:14).
§348. Questions are answered in the affirmative by  e6e  or se ‘Yes, verily’ , and in the negative by  mmon ‘No’, mpwr ‘By no means’  (§297).  mpe  is used to deny questions relating to  past  events; e.g. pe`a.u  na.3 `e  e6e  p.`oeis ‘They say to him: Yes, Lord’ (Mt 13:51), pe`a.i  na.u  `e  se ‘I say to them: Yes’ (Z 347.17), a.u.ouw4b  na.u  `e  mmon ‘They answered him: No’ (Jn 21:5), mh  a.tetn.4wpe  n.at.laau nto.ou  de  pe`a.u  `e  mpe ‘Were you without anything? They say: No’ (Lk 22:35).
§349. Indirect Questions. As in the case of the Indirect Statement (§337), it is often difficult to decide if a question is in fact direct or indirect; e.g. ma`ne n.ent.a.u.swtm  `e  ou  n.ent.a.i.`oo.u  na.u ‘Ask those who heard what were the things I said to them’ (Jn 18:21; §360). Note: This construction is usual after sooun ‘To understand’ in order to amplify the Object; e.g. pai  tn.sooun  mmo.3  `e  ou.ebwl.twn  pe ‘This one we know (of him) whence he is’ (Jn 7:27), a.3.souwn.3  `e  nim  pe ‘He knew (him) who he was’ (Z 304.g.3).
§350. Relative Clauses. The relative clause plays an extremely important part in Coptic, for by means of it the deficiency in adjectives and the lack of the participle are made good.
 Relative clauses can be divided into two main types:
 (1) With undefined antecedent.
 (2) With defined antecedent.
 A subdivision of both these types must further be made:
 (a) When the antecedent is also the subject of the relative clause.
 (b) When the antecedent is not the subject of the relative clause.
§351. (1) Relative Clauses with Undefined Antecedent: When the antecedent is without the article, or has the indefinite article, the relative clause is introduced by the Circumstantial Tense or a compound tense prefixed by  e-  (§231); e.g. ou.polis  e.sta.`rhu ‘A city which is strong’ (Ps 30:22), 6en.et.pw  e.u.6or4 ‘Burdens which are heavy’ (Mt 23:4), ne.3.gramateus  pe  e.4a.3.s6ai  n.sa  pe.souo ‘He was a scribe who used to keep account of the corn’ (Z 350.d.1), ou.stasis  e.a.s.4wpe  6n.t.polis ‘An insurrection which had happened in the city’ (Lk 23:19), mmn.6m6al  e.naa.3  e.ne3.`oeis ‘There is not (a) servant who is greater than his Lord’ (Jn 15:20).
§352. When the relative clause is non-verbal, the usage is noted in §197a.n.
(a)  ere-  is used when the subject of the relative clause is nominal and differs from the antecedent and the predicate is adverbial (§301ff); e.g. ou.rwme  ere.ou.4o4ou  m.moou  6i`w.3 ‘A man upon whom is a pitcher of water’ (Mk 14:13), ou.4eere ... ere.ou.pna  n.akaqarton  nmma.s ‘A daughter ... in whom was an unclean spirit’ (Mk 7:25).
(b)  e-  is used before non-verbal clauses of the 2<sup>nd</sup> group (§306ff); e.g. ne.un  ou.rwme  de  n.rm.mao  e.pe3.ran  pe  nineuh ‘There was a rich man whose name was Nineve [sic]’ (Lk 16:19), eis  ou.s6ime ... e.u.re3.r.nobe  te ‘Lo, a woman ... who (was) a sinner’ (Lk 7:37).
§353. When the antecedent is not the subject of the relative clause, it must be referred back to by means of a resumptive pronoun. This rule applies equally when the antecedent is defined (but cf §364 for an exception to this rule); e.g. ou.ma  e.u.moute  ero.3  `e  liqostrwton ‘A place which they call it: Lithostraton’ (Jn 19:13), ne.un  ou.rwme  de  mmau  ere.te3.2i`  4ouwou (§233 & 233n) ‘There was a man there whose hand was dried (lit. a man who his hand is dried)’ (Mk 3:1), a.3.smine  n.ou.6oou  e.3.na.krine  n.6ht.3  n.t.oikoumenh ‘He has appointed a day on which he will judge the world (lit. a day which he will judge in it the world)’ (Acts 17:31).
§354. Negation of relative clauses with Undefined Antecedent.  e- is prefixed  to the negative particle n- (§198) or to the negative auxiliary; e.g. 6n.ou.6oou  e.n.3.sooun  mmo.3  an  auw  6n.ou.ounou  e.n.3.eime  ero.s  an ‘In a day which he does not understand and in an hour which he does not perceive’ (Lk 12:46), ou.sate  e.me.sw4m ‘A fire which is not wont to be quenched’ (Mt 3:12; §205), ou.no2  n.qliyis  e.mpe.ouon  n.te.s6h  4wpe  `in  te.6oueite  m.p.kosmos ‘A great tribulation, the like of which has not happened since the beginning of the world’ (Mt 24:21), ou.tafos  n.brre  e.